An organization of workers formed to promote and protect its members' interests through collective bargaining.

Negotiation between employers and a group of employees aimed at reaching agreements to regulate working conditions.

The idea that the goal of society should be to bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.

The capitalist class who own most of society's wealth and means of production.

The working class who sell their labor for wages and do not own the means of production.

A political and economic theory where class struggle leads to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.

A period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following a series of military defeats and concessions to foreign powers.

A series of governmental reforms between 1839 and 1876 in the Ottoman Empire that sought to centralize and rationalize Ottoman rule and capture more tax revenues for the military.

The right to vote in political elections.

A work stoppage caused by a mass refusal of employees to work.

An anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising in China between 1899 and 1901, toward the end of the Qing dynasty.

Modernized the Ottoman military, tax collection, roads, and postal service.

Ottoman reforms aimed to decrease corruption, secularize education, codify laws, and update the legal system.

A Chinese attempt to modernize by abolishing the civil service exam, fighting corruption, and reforming medical practices.

Shorter work hours, improved working conditions, increased wages, advocated for workers' rights, improved job security, and expanded suffrage.

The Qing Dynasty collapsed due to internal and external pressures, including the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement and the Boxer Rebellion.

It aimed to reduce workdays, improve workers' health, and increase leisure time, significantly impacting labor laws and working conditions.

A political document written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Commissioned by the Communist League and originally published in London just as the Revolutions of 1848 began to erupt, the Manifesto was later recognised as one of the world's most influential political manuscripts.

A series of republican revolts against European monarchies, beginning in Sicily, and spreading to France, Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire. They all ended in failure and repression and were followed by widespread disillusionment by liberals and radicals.

Although the revolutions were a failure, they led to the abolishment of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark, the introduction of parliamentary democracy in the Netherlands, and the beginning of representative government in several other European countries.

Causes: Industrialization, factory system. Effects: Rise of labor unions, strikes, demand for reforms.

Causes: Anti-foreign sentiment, Qing Dynasty weakness. Effects: Further weakening of Qing Dynasty, increased foreign influence.

Causes: Poor working conditions, income inequality, lack of bargaining power. Effects: Shorter work hours, improved conditions, increased wages, workers' rights.

Causes: Desire to modernize China, military defeats. Effects: Limited modernization, failure to prevent further foreign influence.

Causes: Desire to modernize the Ottoman Empire, decrease corruption. Effects: Some modernization, but ultimately failed to keep pace with industrialized nations.

Causes: Exploitation of workers, income inequality. Effects: Inspired communist movements, class struggles, revolutions.

Causes: Desire to improve society, address inequality. Effects: Influenced social reforms, government policies.

Causes: Labor union advocacy, demand for political rights. Effects: More men could vote, increased political participation.

Causes: Labor union collective bargaining, strikes. Effects: Improved living standards for workers, reduced income inequality.

Causes: widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership; demands for more participation in government and democracy; demands for freedom of the press; the demands of the working classes; the upsurge of nationalism. Effects: abolishment of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark, the introduction of parliamentary democracy in the Netherlands, and the beginning of representative government in several other European countries.